Sport and post-materialist values
It may seem paradoxical to bring together post-materialist values - which are not centered on the notions of performance, but rather of well-being and quality of life[31] - sporting activity and the Olympic ideal . However, in order to identify the way in which the public perceives the practice of sport, it is essential to take into account the values of citizens who have claimed to have a regular practice of sport in order to understand their motivations.
We determined the correlation between belonging to a sports structure and the set of values insisting on the search for personal expression and well-being. The advantage of the World Values Survey is that they contain an indicator of post-materialist trends, thus making it possible to really measure the evolution of behavior. Two scales are proposed for the post-materialist indicator, a simple scale allowing the responses of the interviewees to be coded from 1 to 4 and a detailed scale of 12. The post-materialist indicator is a synthetic indicator reflecting the concerns of the public. cs in question on themes as essential as family, work, environment and religious attitude . The values of emancipation are marked by tolerance of diversity, civic protest, trust in people while the values of low emancipation are strictly the opposite [32] . For example, if we take the attitude of the respondents in relation to work and the fact of belonging to a sports organization, then there is a correlation between these two variables : respondents claiming to have regular exercise emphasize the size of a l ' personal fulfillment at work rather than that of economic concern [33] . There is a variable measuring the respondents' relationship to economic subsistence or personal expression : again, there is a correlation between membership in a sports organization and the fact of favoring values of personal expression. [34] .
When we make an overview of the countries whose respondents expressed civic values close to post-materialism and autonomy between 1980 and 2000 , the countries that really entered a post-materialist phase are the Netherlands. , the countries of Northern Europe, then the countries with mixed values (post-materialist in some aspects, still materialist in other aspects), namely the United States , Southern Europe, certain Latin American countries and South Africa then countries still in a materialistic phase[35] marked by the hierarchical organization of industrial societies[36] . When we perform a correlation between belonging to a sports organization and the detailed post-materialist index, then we notice that this correlation is significant for the 81,423 identified cases. The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level [37] , which means that when citizens join a sports organization, they tend to approach post-materialist values. This evolution of civic behavior must be taken into account and at the same time allows to relativize the idea of an affirmed transition towards a post-materialist society. In fact, the Olympic values strike a balance between post-materialist aspirations and traditional values. Respect for diversity coexists with the affirmation of cultural traditions ; individual emancipation does not come at the cost of distrust of the community. The practice of sport accompanies a more readable transition of these values in post-industrial societies , since it is not synonymous with a search for performance . The relationship between normative representations of education and membership in a sports organization is also significant : when respondents join a sports organization, they tend to feel that the important qualities of a child must be the feeling of responsibility. (Pearson coefficient of .036). On the other hand, the correlation has a negative sign when we relate this adhesion to the fact of seeing in education the need to privilege the feeling of hard work (Pearson's coefficient of -.096).
By studying the relationship between membership in a sports organization taken as a dependent variable and sociological variables such as age, type of habitat and environment, gender, level of development of society, logistic regression I surant relations between the evolution of variables gives no significant result. This means that membership in a sports organization does not depend on the adult's age or gender and even less on the development of society. This is the reason why we preferred to carry out correlations between societal values and the fact of joining a sports organization in order to understand the place of sport in the life and the representations of the respondents. These correlations do not describe causal relationships, rather they indicate an underlying trend.
In reality , the Olympic values bring together sometimes antagonistic requirements, they are themselves a synthesis of values and this is what makes their universality. We can take to our account what Elie Bernard-Weil called " ago-antagonistic systems " [38] , namely the set of couples associating the notions of conflict and cooperation. We can see that the Olympic Games both encouraged the development of values of solidarity at the global level while encouraging a professionalization of sports practice, which does not always go in this direction. The rediscovery of the practice of sport as an expressive cultural activity would be part of an evolution of the post-materialist values of the citizens of a majority of countries[39] , a development which would be likely to accompany a wider dissemination of the Olympic ideal.
Conclusion
The measurement of citizens' attitudes towards sport and the values at the heart of the Olympic ideal can only be done using a cross- cultural survey . This transcultural approach is all the more necessary as the Olympic ideal is intended to be universal. The Olympic movement trying to influence the various national educational policies vis-à-vis sport, it was important to compare the place of sport in everyday life as well as its link to other values. The study showed that if the taste of the effort and of the competition remained vivid in sport, there was still an emphasis on the search for well-being and personal development in post-industrial societies while the industrializing societies were proof of a commitment a little harder to competitive experience. It is obviously necessary to distinguish the public opinion of these countries vis-à-vis the conception of the practice of sport from the opinion of professional athletes or physical educators . If the regularity of the Olympic games has an impact on the sports structure of each nation, we note a change in the effects of lympism, since public opinion no longer makes sport an ideal of promotion, but simply the ass urance a personal balance that may conflict with the sanctification of the performance at the expense of health.
The Olympic values are themselves centered on a sporting practice devoid of material interest and promoting competition between individuals only by favoring participation rather than victory.[40] . At the same time, these values carry in themselves a regulation of other values in that they refer to certain nations and to certain individuals the idea of elevation through performance and to others the idea of expression. personal through effort : for this reason we should speak of a system of values . It is because of this diversity that the Olympism remains universal and transcends the ages. Olympic values always have a primordial influence on sports practices and are not in contradiction with the emergence of societies marked both by a liberation from the conditions of subsistence and by an evolution of mentalities favoring the framework of life with concern for performance.
Christophe Premat (Spirit, UMR 5116 CNRS, Sciences Po Bordeaux)
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[1] http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/fr_report_122.pdf
[2] The Olympic Games were part of this globalization long before the World Cups. Georges Vigarello, for his part, insisted on the way in which the Football World Cups had made it possible to create cross-cultural networks producing an image of the world. Georges Vigarello, " The first cups of the world, or the installation of modern sport ", Twentieth century, volume 26, n ° 1, 1990, p. 7.
[3] During the Athens Olympic Games in 2004, the MRB Hellas SA consortium and Research International carried out a survey of 5,028 Greek and foreign spectators focusing on their satisfaction with the infrastructure and the conduct of ceremonies and events. Olympic disciplines. The results can be viewed on the website of the Greek Embassy in France ( http://www.amb-grece.fr/olympisme/sondage.htm, last accessed February 28, 2008).
[4] Jacques Thibault, The influence of the sports movement on the evolution of physical education in French secondary education, Paris, Vrin, 1972, p. 148.
[5] Monsieu r Spivak, The military origins of physical education in France (1774-1848), Documentation center of the National Institute of Sports, Château de Vincennes, 1972, p. 114 .
[6] George Rozet , " The Stockholm Olympics ," Revue de Paris, 1 st and August 15, 1912, p. 839.
[7] Roland Naul, “ Wilhbald Gebhardt, Carl Diem und die Anfänge des olympischen Sports in Deutschland ” , in Michael Krüger (ed.), Olympische Spiele, Bilanz und Perspektiven im 21. Jahrhundert, Münster, editions of the University of Münster, 2001, pp. 74-89. Carl Diem had fought for the 1916 Summer Olympics to be held in Germany before they were canceled. He was subsequently the Secretary General of the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, which earned him much criticism and suspicion of sympathy for Nazism. We can see how in the texts and interventions of Carl Diem there is a deep gap between the Olympic ideal and practice. WJ Murray, “ France, Coubertin and the Nazi Olympics : the response ”, Olympika: The International Journal of Olympic Studies, volume I, 1992, pp. 46-69.
[8] Robert J. Paddick, “ Amateurism: An idea of the past or a necessity for the future? » , The International Journal of Olympic Studies, volume III, 1994, p. 2.
[9] We could take our account of the concept of aesthetic education of man developed by Friedrich Schiller in his Letters on the aesthetic education of man, Translated from the German by Robert Leroux, Paris, Aubier (1992 ).
[10] Roman Czula , “ Sport and Olympic Idealism ”, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 1978, pp. 62-79.
[11] Pierre Bourdieu, “ The Olympic Games, program for an analysis ” , Proceedings of social science research, volume 103, n ° 1, 1994, p. 103.
[12] New York Times, October 4, 1959. Richard E. Lapchick, “ A Political History of the Modern Olympic Games ” , Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 1978, p. 10.
[13] Recently, a study showed that the 1936 Olympics put in e HIGHLIGHTING that the Nazis did not want to completely turn his back on a form of Olympism they interpreted in their own way. James M. Pitsula, “ The Nazi Olympics , a reinterpretation ”, The International Journal of Olympic Studies, volume XIII, 2004, pp. 1-25.
[14] For a review of these critiques, see Kurt Weis, “ The Forum of Debate and the Olympic Controversy ” , International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 1987, pp. 143-145.
[15] Jeffrey O. Segrave, “ The (neo) modern Olympic Games: the Revolutions in Europe and the Resurgence of Universalism ” , International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35, 2000, p. 271.
[16] Jim Parry, “ Physical Education as Olympic Education ” , European Physical Education Review, No. 4, 1998, p. 154.
[17] Cornelius Castoriadis , The Imaginary Institution of Society, Paris, Seuil, 1975.
[18] Mark Dyreson, “ Olympic Games and Historical Imagination: notes from the Faultine of Tradition and Modernity ” , Olympika: The International Journal of Olympic Studies, volume VII, 1998, pp. 25-42.
[19] Ja n W. Van Deth , Elinor Scarbrough, “ Introduction : the impact of values ”, in Jan W. Van Deth, Elinor Scarbrough (ed .), The impact of values, Oxford University Press , 1995, p. 28.
[20] The survey was carried out in September 2003 among 16,124 respondents of European citizenship. http://www.ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_197_fr_summ.pdf
[21] http://www.eyes-2004.info/2113.0.html
[22] Ministry of Youth and Sports, “ Half a Century of Sports Licenses ”, Stat-Info, Bulletin of Statistics and Studies, No. 04-06, November 2004, p.7.
[23] European Values Study Group and World Values Survey Association. European and world values surveys four wave integrated data file, 1981-2004, v. 20060423, 2006. Aggregate File Producers: Análisis Sociológicos Económicos y Políticos (ASEP) and JD Systems (JDS), Madrid , Spain / Tilburg University , Tilburg , the Netherlands. Data Files Suppliers: ASEP and JDS, Zentralarchiv für Empirische Sozialforschung (ZA), Cologne . Aggregate File Distributors: ASEP, JDS and ZA.
[24] Questions relate specifically to the way of conceiving education.
[25] Among the 1,200 American respondents questioned in 1999, a greater majority claimed to belong to a sports organization, whereas in 1990, they were only 20%.
[26] These statistics are consistent with the official national statistics from the Norwegian Olympic Committee, which, in 2003, identified 12 311 teams to 1 883 847 of a sports organization. See Statistics Norway, http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/07/nos_cultural/nos_d315_en/tab/tab8.2.html , last accessed February 28, 2008.
[27] Brazilian respondents interviewed in 1991 are only 8% to belong to a sports organization.
[28] Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1993.
[29] http://www.berlin.de/imperia/md/content/sen-sport/sportpolitik/umferg_kurz.pdf document last accessed February 28, 2008.
[30] Kate Fox, Leicha Richards, “ Sport and leisure, results from the sport and leisure module of the 2002 General Household Survey ” , 2002, http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/Sport&Leisure.pdf
[31] Masaki Taniguchi , “ A Time Machine: New Evidence of Post-Materialist Value Change ”, International Political Science Review, Vol. 27, n ° 4, 2006, p. 416.
[32] Christian Welzel, Ronald Inglehart, Hans-Dieter Klingemann, “ The Theory of human development : a cross-cultural analysis ” , European Journal of Political Research, 2003, p. 354.
[33] Of the 129,419 cases identified, the Pearson coefficient measuring the bivariate correlation is 0.067 and is significant at 0.01. There is no significant correlation between membership in a sports organization and the fact of privileging the amount of the salary in work, that is to say between the practice of sport and a materialistic value.
[34] The correlation is significant at 0.01 with a Pearson coefficient of 0.17.
[35] Christian Welzel, Ronald Inglehart, Franziska Deutsch, “ Social Capital, Voluntary Associations and Collective Action : Which Aspects of Social Capital Have the Greatest “ Civic ”Payoff? ” , Journal of Civil Society, vol. 1, n ° 2, September 2005, p. 139.
[36] Ronal d Inglehart, Wayne E. Baker , “ Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of traditional values ” , American Sociological Review, vol. 65, 2000, p. 22.
[37] The bivariate correlation revealed a Pearson coefficient of 0.098 for the simple post-materialist indicator and a coefficient of 0.075 for the detailed indicator. This gap means in fact that the more one adheres to a sports organization, the more one evolves towards a mixed society, valuing both materialist meanings and post-materialist meanings.
[38] Elie Bernard-Weil, “ No governance without the counterweight of civil society. A couple ago-antagonist whose socio-political inferences could be decisive ”, Res-Systemica, volume n ° 5, Special issue : acts of the European Systemic Congress, 2005, http://www.afscet.asso.fr/
[39] Christian Welzel and Ronald Inglehart recently asserted that analysis of World Values Surveys data shows that the shift towards values favoring personal autonomy affected democratic societies as well as authoritarian societies. Christian Welzel, Ronald Inglehart, “ The role of ordinary people in democratization ”, Journal of Democracy, volume 19, n ° 1, 2008, p. 131.
[40] Roman Czula , 1978, op. cit., p. 62.
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